John Gray's "The New Leviathans: Thoughts After Liberalism" is a reflective critique of liberalism and its contemporary manifestations. Through an examination of modern movements and ideologies, such as the woke movement, Gray explores the broader implications of these shifts for individual freedom, societal cohesion, and the pursuit of meaning in an uncertain world.

John Gray, a British political philosopher, has been a vocal critic of liberal political philosophy, particularly as developed by John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin. He contends that Rawls’s vision underestimates the complexity of human societies and the depth of disagreements about what constitutes a good life. He also challenges Dawkin’s notion that there are universal moral principles that can guide political and legal judgements. He argues that Dawkin’s theory fails to account for the diversity of moral and cultural perspectives in the world.

Gray’s central thesis, in his book The New Leviathans, is that the liberal project, with its roots in Enlightenment ideals of progress, rationality, individual liberty, equality, justice, and cosmopolitanism, has failed to deliver on its promises and has instead led to a world marked by contradictions and disappointments. He draws attention to the misguided euphoria that the West experienced after the fall of the Soviet Union. This enthusiasm was based on the false belief that history was unabatedly moving toward a "liberal paradise," a notion that was made popular by Francis Fukuyama's "The End of History." Gray suggests that what we've truly observed is a shift away from liberal principles, leading to the emergence of disastrous events and “poisonous ideas,” which has redefined the state's role from being a defender of freedom to act primarily as a shield against threats and oppression.

One of the key themes in The New Leviathans is the critique of the liberal notion of progress. Gray argues that liberalism not only failed to predict or manage the political realities of the 21st century, but its very core beliefs are also in question. He challenges the optimistic belief that humanity is steadily moving towards a better world, suggesting instead a view of history that is cyclical and marked by recurring patterns of mistakes and disillusions.

The question of whether the world follows a linear or a cyclical path doesn’t have a definite answer; it varies widely based on the lens through which it's viewed. From a philosophical perspective, Hegel and Marx, propose that history unfolds in a dialectical manner, implying a form of progression (linear) through the resolution of conflicts. Meanwhile, Nietzsche introduced the concept of "eternal recurrence," a cyclical view of events. Gray does not explore the idea that the world may not adhere to either a cyclical or linear progression, but one that is characterised by randomness and chaos. This perspective suggests a future that is inherently unpredictable and not strictly bound to a predetermined path. Such a world prompts a re-examination of core philosophical questions, including the concepts of purpose, free will, ethics, and the nature of knowledge itself. It confronts humanity with the task of seeking meaning -if any can be found– in a universe that does not always follow predictable patterns.

Gray uses Hobbes’s Leviathan as a foundation to discuss the evolution of the modern state. Hobbes envisioned the state as a “mortal god” destined to rise above the chaotic state of nature by ensuring the mutual protection of individuals. Yet, Gray sees this vision as a utopian dream that failed to fulfil its promises. Instead of protecting individuals, Gray argues, the new Leviathans of liberalism have plunged society into a “war of all against all,” fuelled by the complexities of human nature and the irrational impulses that drive societies.

Further, Gray offers a critical perspective on the dynamics of woke movements and identity politics within this shifting landscape. He argues that despite their claims to champion social justice and equality, these movements, inadvertently perpetuate class hierarchies and economic injustices. By focusing on micro-aggressions and an emphasis on crafting a public self-image, these movements fail to address deeper and systemic issues.

The term 'woke' captures a surprisingly broad and diverse group of people and organisations. Not surprisingly, the right often uses this broad label, to find fault with just about anyone, accusing them of being a little ‘woke.’ This tactic is frequently employed to dismiss or silence any opposition or scrutiny of divisive, populist rhetoric that ignores facts. Essentially, it's a strategy to suppress the free speech of others. I stand up for what woke really means, namely the Merriam-Webster dictionary definition-“aware of and actively attentive to important societal facts and issues (especially issues of racial and social justice). The reasons for the disdain from populists, conservative proponents, and racists towards the woke movement are not hard to see. By advocating for a society that values equality, diversity, and inclusion, the woke movement poses a direct threat to ideologies that rely on division and exclusion.

Gray stands out in his critique of liberalism, venturing beyond the typical discussions of policy failures or ideological contradictions. He takes a deep dive into the foundational assumptions upon which the liberal ideology is built, scrutinising its ideological roots. Through a philosophical lens, Gray engages with the writings of Schopenhauer and Freud, to explore the complex interplay between human nature, desire, and mortality. He presents the sexual impulse as a central force in human action, deeply intertwined with the innate desire to survive and leave a lasting legacy.

Gray offers a profound commentary on the human condition, highlighting the paradoxical quest for meaning in the face of inevitable mortality. Thus, unlike others, who focus on liberalism’s social and economic aspects, Gray questions the cornerstone of liberalism: the notion that humans are rational and independent decision-makers, suggesting instead that our actions are far more influenced by irrational impulses and an inherent fear of death.

John Gray’s perspective on the failures of liberalism challenges readers to confront the limitations and contradictions of a political philosophy that has shaped much of the modern world. His analysis, though often sobering, essentially serves as a call to embrace a more realistic and disenchanted set of ethics. Ultimately, he urges us to adopt a new viewpoint that acknowledges the complexity of human nature and the inherent limitations within political ideologies.

An interesting and thought-provoking book, The New Leviathans looks at modern Western liberalism through the lens of Hobbes' Leviathan.

The structure is a little chaotic, taking in the Russian revolution, Nazism, the Chinese 'panopticon state' and woke culture through short, often disparate, fragments, linked together by quotes from Hobbes. As someone who is new to Gray's work (and has a limited knowledge of Western philosophy), some of the references went over my head, but I found the overall thesis clear. I didn't always agree with Gray's take (for instance, I would have liked to have seen more recognition of the impact of colonialism on Western liberalism), but his argument was challenging and got me looking at the world in new ways.